學科演講會
A. 計算機學科前沿講座 考題
美國，韓國，俄羅斯。
內核（kernel）、執行體（executive）、視窗和圖形驅動和可裝入模塊
基於協同過濾的推薦技術, 基於內容的推薦技術, 其他推薦技術
網路帶寬的提升，技術成熟度，移動互聯網的發展，數據中心的演變，經濟因素
感知層，網路層，應用層
透徹感知的物聯化，全面的互聯互通，集中有深度的計算
根據目前TCG已經發布的規范，可信計算涉及的關鍵技術和熱點技術在硬體主要是TPM的設計技術；在BIOS層主要包括CRTM、MA2MP驅動的設計技術；在操作系統上主要是可信軟體棧的設計技術以及應用層的可信網路連接技術。通過這些關鍵技術的設計，最終建立可信計算機的信任鏈傳遞機制。
面向對象資料庫系統，分布式資料庫系統，多媒體資料庫系統，知識資料庫系統，並行資料庫系統，模糊資料庫系統
空間數據描述的是現實世界各種現象的三大基本特徵：空間、時間和專題屬性
計算機的單核優化技術、雙核優化技術在降低功耗 方面的成效不大，處理器、BLAS優化技術、SPARC T2處理器等都以高效低耗為發展目標。因此，降低功耗、提高效率是衡量計算機性能優化技術的重要指標。在此 結合單、雙核技術優化的不足，分析處理器的發展趨勢，就BLAS優化技術的研究，分析其存在主要問題及發展趨勢，並提出提高SPARC T2處理器的途徑。
雲計算，虛擬計算，虛擬存儲，分布式存儲，並行計算等
B. 機械學科前沿講座論文
機械製造與自動化相關的，OK 的了
C. 有學科英語的學生么想去聽聽關於學科英語的講座。。。
建議德語，比較實用。
多積累一些詞彙，在學一些語法！一定要攻克詞彙和短語，要熟練，
學一些你比較感興趣的知識，上課認真聽講，下課及時做筆記，
養成背單詞的好習慣，經常復習以前學過的知識！學習起來並不是很難，
只要你用心去學，相信你一定會成功的
D. 學科前言講座的論文有沒有拜託各位大神
論文格式 當我們對一個問題研究之後，如何將其展現於眾人面前是一個重要的工作。在這里我們結合具體的事例，給大家介紹科研的一個重要部分棗論文的一般格式及其注意事項。當然，要寫出一篇好的論文，絕不是單單這么一個簡要的介紹就夠了，還需自己多寫、多練。 隨著科學技術的發展，越來越多的學者涉及到學術論文的寫作領域，那麼怎樣寫學術論文、學術論文寫作是怎樣要求的、格式如何，下面就介紹一下學術論文的寫作，希望能對您論文寫作有所幫助。 (一)題名（Title,Topic） 1、論文格式的論文題目：（下附署名）要求准確、簡練、醒目、新穎。 論文題目是一篇論文給出的涉及論文范圍與水平的第一個重要信息，也是必須考慮到有助於選定關鍵詞不達意和編制題錄、索引等二次文獻可以提供檢索的特定實用信息。 論文題目十分重要，必須用心斟酌選定。有人描述其重要性，用了下面的一句話：論文題目是文章的一半。 對論文題目的要求是：准確得體；簡短精煉；外延和內涵恰如其分；醒目。對這四方面的要求分述如下。 1．准確得體 要求論文題目能准確表達論文內容，恰當反映所研究的范圍和深度。 常見毛病是：過於籠統，題不扣文。關鍵問題在於題目要緊扣論文內容，或論文內容民論文題目要互相匹配、緊扣，即題要扣文，文也要扣題。這是撰寫論文的基本准則。 2．簡短精煉 力求題目的字數要少，用詞需要精選。至於多少字算是合乎要求，並無統一的硬性規定，一般希望一篇論文題目不要超出20個字，不過，不能由於一味追求字數少而影響題目對內容的恰當反映，在遇到兩者確有矛盾時，寧可多用幾個字也要力求表達明確。 若簡短題名不足以顯示論文內容或反映出屬於系列研究的性質，則可利用正、副標題的方法解決，以加副標題來補充說明特定的實驗材料，方法及內容等信息使標題成為既充實准確又不流於籠統和一般化。 3．外延和內涵要恰如其分 外延和內涵屬於形式邏輯中的概念。所謂外延，是指一個概念所反映的每一個對象；而所謂內涵，則是指對每一個概念對象特有屬性的反映。 命題時，若不考慮邏輯上有關外延和內涵的恰當運用，則有可能出現謬誤，至少是不當。 4．醒目 論文題目雖然居於首先映入讀者眼簾的醒目位置，但仍然存在題目是否醒目的問題，因為題目所用字句及其所表現的內容是否醒目，其產生的效果是相距甚遠的。 有人對36種公開發行的醫學科持期刊1987年發表的論文的部分標題，作過統計分析，從中篩選100條有錯誤的標題。在100條有錯誤的標題中，屬於省略不當錯誤的佔20%；屬於介詞使用不當錯誤的佔12%）。在使用介詞時產生的錯誤主要有： ①省略主語棗第一人稱代詞不達意後，沒有使用介詞結構，使輔助成分誤為主語； ②需要使用介詞時又沒有使用； ③不需要使用介詞結構時使用。屬主事的錯誤的佔11%；屬於並列關系使用不當錯誤的佔9%；屬於用詞不當、句子混亂錯誤的各佔9%，其它類型的錯誤，如標題冗長、文題不符、重復、歧意等亦時有發生。 （二）作者姓名和單位（Author and department） 這一項屬於論文署名問題。署名一是為了表明文責自負，二是記錄作用的勞動成果，三是便於讀者與作者的聯系及文獻檢索（作者索引）。大致分為二種情形，即：單個作者論文和多作者論文。後者按署名順序列為第一作者、第二作者厖。重要的是堅持實事求是的態度，對研究工作與論文撰寫實際貢獻最大的列為第一作者，貢獻次之的，列為第二作者，余類推。註明作者所在單位同樣是為了便於讀者與作者的聯系。 （三）摘要（Abstract） 論文一般應有摘要，有些為了國際交流，還有外文（多用英文）摘要。它是論文內容不加註釋和評論的簡短陳述。其他用是不閱讀論文全文即能獲得必要的信息。 摘要應包含以下內容： ①從事這一研究的目的和重要性； ②研究的主要內容，指明完成了哪些工作； ③獲得的基本結論和研究成果，突出論文的新見解； ④結論或結果的意義。 論文摘要雖然要反映以上內容，但文字必須十分簡煉，內容亦需充分概括，篇幅大小一般限制其字數不超過論文字數的5%。例如，對於6000字的一篇論文，其摘要一般不超出300字。 論文摘要不要列舉例證，不講研究過程，不用圖表，不給化學結構式，也不要作自我評價。 撰寫論文摘要的常見毛病，一是照搬論文正文中的小標題（目錄）或論文結論部分的文字；二是內容不濃縮、不概括，文字篇幅過長。 （四）關鍵詞（Key words） 關鍵詞屬於主題詞中的一類。主題詞除關鍵詞外，還包含有單元詞、標題詞的敘詞。 主題詞是用來描述文獻資料主題和給出檢索文獻資料的一種新型的情報檢索語言詞彙，正是由於它的出現和發展，才使得情報檢索計算機化（計算機檢索）成為可能。 主題詞是指以概念的特性關系來區分事物，用自然語言來表達，並且具有組配功能，用以准確顯示詞與詞之間的語義概念關系的動態性的詞或片語。 關鍵詞是標示文獻關建主題內容，但未經規范處理的主題詞。關鍵詞是為了文獻標引工作，從論文中選取出來，用以表示全文主要內容信息款目的單詞或術語。一篇論文可選取3~8個詞作為關鍵詞。 關鍵詞或主題詞的一般選擇方法是： 由作者在完成論文寫作後，縱觀全文，先出能表示論文主要內容的信息或詞彙，這些住處或詞江，可以從論文標題中去找和選，也可以從論文內容中去找和選。例如上例，關鍵詞選用了6個，其中前三個就是從論文標題中選出的，而後三個卻是從論文內容中選取出來的。後三個關鍵詞的選取，補充了論文標題所未能表示出的主要內容信息，也提高了所涉及的概念深度。需要選出，與從標題中選出的關鍵詞一道，組成該論文的關鍵片語。 關鍵詞與主題詞的運用，主要是為了適應計算機檢索的需要，以及適應國際計算機聯機檢索的需要。一個刊物增加關鍵詞這一項，就為該刊物提高引用率、增加知名度開辟了一個新的途徑。 （五）引言（Intorction） 引言又稱前言，屬於整篇論文的引論部分。其寫作內容包括：研究的理由、目的、背景、前人的工作和知識空白，理論依據和實驗基礎，預期的結果及其在相關領域里的地位、作用和意義。 引言的文字不可冗長，內容選擇不必過於分散、瑣碎，措詞要精煉，要吸引讀者讀下去。引言的篇幅大小，並無硬性的統一規定，需視整篇論文篇幅的大小及論文內容的需要來確定，長的可達700~800字或1000字左右，短的可不到100字。 （六）正文（Main body） 正文是一篇論文的本論，屬於論文的主體，它占據論文的最大篇幅。論文所體現的創造性成果或新的研究結果，都將在這一部分得到充分的反映。因此，要求這一部分內容充實，論據充分、可靠，論證有力，主題明確。為了滿足這一系列要求，同時也為了做到層次分明、脈絡清晰，常常將正文部分人成幾個大的段落。這些段落即所謂邏輯段，一個邏輯段可包含幾個自然段。每一邏輯段落可冠以適當標題（分標題或小標題）。段落和劃分，應視論文性質與內容而定。 （七）參考文獻 [序號]. 編著者. 書名[M]，出版地：出版社，年代，起止頁碼 [序號]. 作者. 論文名稱[J]，期刊名稱，年度，卷（期），起止頁碼 電子文獻的載體類型及其標識 隨著我國信息化進程的加快，電子文獻的採用量逐漸加大，其標注方式的規范化已經提到議事日程上來了。現根據國家新聞出版署印發的《中國學術期刊（光碟版）檢索與評價數據規范》的有關規定，對來稿提出如下要求： 一、對於資料庫、計算機程序及電子公告等電子文獻類型的參考文獻，以下列雙字母作為標示： 電子文獻類型 資料庫 計算機程序 電子公告 電子文獻類型標識 DB CP EB 二、電子文獻的載體類型及其標識 對於非紙張類型載體的電子文獻，當被引用為參考文獻時需在參考文獻類型中同時標明其載體類型。 《規范》採用雙字母表示電子文獻載體類型：磁帶(magnetic tape)MT，磁碟(disk)DK，光碟(CD-ROM) CD，聯機網路(online)OL，並以下列格式表示包括了文獻載體類型的參考文獻類型標識： [文獻類型標識/載體類型標識] 如：[DB/OL]——聯機網上資料庫（database online） [ DB/MT]——磁帶資料庫（database on magnetic tape） [M/CD]——光碟圖書（monograph on CD-ROM） [CP/DK]——磁碟軟體（computer program on disk） [J/OL]——網上期刊（serial online） [EB/OL]——網上電子公告（electronic pulletin board online） 如：[1]王明亮．關於中國學術期刊標准資料庫系統工程的進展[DB/OL]．文獻網址, 1998-08-16/1998-10-04． 以紙張為載體的傳統文獻在引作參考文獻時不必註明其載體類型。 編寫要求 頁面要求：畢業論文須用A4（210×297）標准、70克以上白紙，一律採用單面列印；畢業論文頁邊距按以下標准設置：上邊距為30mm，下邊距為25mm，左邊距和右邊距為25mm；裝訂線為10mm，頁眉16mm，頁腳15mm。 頁眉：頁眉從摘要頁開始到論文最後一頁，均需設置。頁眉內容：浙江廣播電視大學漢語言文學類本科畢業論文，居中，列印字型大小為5號宋體，頁眉之下有一條下劃線。 頁腳：從論文主體部分（引言或緒論）開始，用阿拉伯數字連續編頁，頁碼編寫方法為：第×頁共×頁，居中，列印字型大小為小五號宋體。 前置部分從中文題名頁起單獨編頁。 字體與間距：畢業論文字體為小四號宋體，字間距設置為標准字間距，行間距設置為固定值20磅。
E. 計算機學科前沿講座 考題
1.機器學習(Machine Learning, ML)是一門多領域交叉學科，涉及概率論、統計學、逼近論、凸分析、演算法復雜度理論等多門學科。專門研究計算機怎樣模擬或實現人類的學習行為，以獲取新的知識或技能，重新組織已有的知識結構使之不斷改善自身的性能。
2.信任模型是PKI原理中的一個重要概念，指建立信任關系和驗證證書時尋找和遍歷信任路徑的模型。
3.雲計算[1]（cloud computing）是基於互聯網的相關服務的增加、使用和交付模式，通常涉及通過互聯網來提供動態易擴展且經常是虛擬化的資源
4.物聯網就是物物相連的互聯網。這有兩層意思：其一，物聯網的核心和基礎仍然是互聯網，是在互聯網基礎上的延伸和擴展的網路；其二，其用戶端延伸和擴展到了任何物品與物品之間，進行信息交換和通信 也就是物物相息
5.服務計算是跨越計算機與信息技術、商業管理、商業質詢服務等領域的一個新的學科，是應用面向服務架構(SOA)技術在消除商業服務與信息支撐技術之間的橫溝方面的直接產物。它在形成自己獨特的科學與技術體系的基礎上有機整合了一系列最新技術成果：SOA(Service Oriented Architecture，面向服務的體系架構)及Web服務、網格/效用計算(Grid & Utility Computing)以及業務流程整合及管理(Business Process Integration & Management)，第一部分解決的是技術平台和架構的問題；第二部分解決是服務交付的問題；第三部分則是業務本身的整合和管理。
Endorsement key 簽注密鑰、Secure input and output 安全輸入輸出、Memory curtaining 儲存器屏蔽、Sealed storage 密封儲存、Remote attestation 遠程認證
數據管理技術具體就是指人們對數據進行收集、組織、存儲、加工、傳播和利用的一系列活動的總和，經歷了人工管理、文件管理、資料庫管理三個階段。每一階段的發展以數據存儲冗餘不斷減小、數據獨立性不斷增強、數據操作更加方便和簡單為標志，各有各的特點。如果說從人工管理到文件系統，是計算機開始應用於數據的實質進步，那麼從文件系統到資料庫系統，標志著數據管理技術質的飛躍。20世紀80年代後不僅在大、中型計算機上實現並應用了數據管理的資料庫技術，如Oracle、Sybase、Informix等，在微型計算機上也可使用資料庫管理軟體，如常見的Access、FoxPro等軟體，使資料庫技術得到廣泛應用和普及。
目標構成資料庫的邏輯過程、主題與面向主題、集成的數據、數據是持久的、數據是隨時間不斷變化的
1減少數據訪問（減少磁碟訪問）2返回更少數據（減少網路傳輸或磁碟訪問）3減少交互次數（減少網路傳輸）4減少伺服器CPU開銷（減少CPU及內存開銷）5利用更多資源（增加資源)
F. 學科前沿講座感想 怎樣寫好畢業論文
得看你們課上具體講了哪幾個方面的會計業務，比如稅法、審計或者其他一些具體的內容，然後根據這些具體的內容再網路找資料比較好寫一些。
G. 關於學科的英文演講
數學
You have been learning how to develop your skills in speaking, reading, and writing the English language. Did you know that when you were in math class, you were also learning how to speak, read, and write the language of mathematics?
Mathematics uses numbers and number systems instead of the alphabet, but it's also a language: a language of patterns and symbols.
Mathematics can help you recognize, understand, describe and identify changes in patterns.
The elementary school curriculum is organized to help you learn about:
Numbers and number systems.
Measurement.
Shapes and space.
Algebra.
Statistics and probability.
You have been learning about these math areas, and you've learned how math can help you to:
Describe size and number of things in your world.
Solve problems.
Recognize and study shapes in the world around us.
Understand relationships and patterns.
Communicate with others.
There are many concepts or big ideas that you discover as you study math. Some of these ideas have been illustrated in the lessons that follow. These lessons can help you learn and check your understanding.
數學
We live in a mathematical world. Whenever we decide on a purchase, choose an insurance or health plan, or use a spreadsheet, we rely on mathematical understanding. The World Wide Web, CD-ROMs, and other media disseminate vast quantities of quantitative information. The level of mathematical thinking and problem solving needed in the workplace has increased dramatically.
In such a world, those who understand and can do mathematics will have opportunities that others do not. Mathematical competence opens doors to proctive futures. A lack of mathematical competence closes those doors.
Students have different abilities, needs, and interests. Yet everyone needs to be able to use mathematics in his or her personal life, in the workplace, and in further study. All students deserve an opportunity to understand the power and beauty of mathematics. Students need to learn a new set of mathematics basics that enable them to compute fluently and to solve problems creatively and resourcefully.
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics describes a future in which all students have access to rigorous, high-quality mathematics instruction, including four years of high school mathematics. Knowledgeable teachers have adequate support and ongoing access to professional development. The curriculum is mathematically rich, providing students with opportunities to learn important mathematical concepts and proceres with understanding. Students have access to technologies that broaden and deepen their understanding of mathematics. More students pursue ecational paths that prepare them for lifelong work as mathematicians, statisticians, engineers, and scientists.
This vision of mathematics teaching and learning is not the reality in the majority of classrooms, schools, and districts. Today, many students are not learning the mathematics they need. In some instances, students do not have the opportunity to learn significant mathematics. In others, students lack commitment or are not engaged by existing curricula.
Attaining the vision laid out in Principles and Standards will not be easy, but the task is critically important. We must provide our students with the best mathematics ecation possible, one that enables them to fulfill personal ambitions and career goals in an ever changing world.
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics has four major components. First, the Principles for school mathematics reflect basic perspectives on which ecators should base decisions that affect school mathematics. These Principles establish a foundation for school mathematics programs by considering the broad issues of equity, curriculum, teaching, learning, assessment, and technology.
Following the Principles, the Standards for school mathematics describe an ambitious and comprehensive set of goals for mathematics instruction. The first five Standards present goals in the mathematical content areas of number and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, and data analysis and probability. The second five describe goals for the processes of problem solving, reasoning and proof, connections, communication, and representation. Together, the Standards describe the basic skills and understandings that students will need to function effectively in the twenty-first century.
The ten Standards are treated in greater detail in four grade-band chapters: prekindergarten through grade 2, grades 3–5, grades 6–8, and grades 9–12. For each of the Content Standards, each of the grade-band chapters includes a set of expectations specific to that grade band.
Finally, the document discusses the issues related to putting the Principles into action and outlines the roles played by various groups and communities in realizing the vision of Principles and Standards.
地理：
Geography is the study of the earth』s landscapes, peoples, places and environments. It is, quite simply, about the world in which we live.
Geography is unique in bridging the social sciences (human geography) with the natural sciences (physical geography) .
Geography puts this understanding of social and physical processes within the context of places and regions - recognising the great differences in cultures, political systems, economies, landscapes and environments across the world, and the links between them. Understanding the causes of differences and inequalities between places and social groups underlie much of the newer developments in human geography.
Geography provides an ideal framework for relating other fields of knowledge. It is not surprising that those trained as geographers often contribute substantially to the applied management of resources and environments.
Click on the right hand side resource bar for a lecture by Professor Doreen Massey entitled 'Is The World Really Shrinking?' which lays out an inspirational manifesto of why its time to put the geography back into global thinking
地理：
Introction
The main objective of this online textbook is to introce students to the exciting field of knowledge known as physical geography. Physical geography is a discipline that is part of a much larger area of understanding called geography. Most indivials define geography as a field of study that deals with maps. This definition is only partially correct. A better definition of geography may be the study of natural and human constructed phenomena relative to a spatial dimension.
The discipline of geography has a history that stretches over many centuries. Over this time period, the study of geography has evolved and developed into an important form of human scholarship. Examining the historical evolution of geography as a discipline provides some important insights concerning its character and methodology. These insights are also helpful in gaining a better understanding of the nature of physical geography.
History of Geography and Physical Geography
Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The main purpose of these early investigations was to map features and places observed as explorers traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations were beginning to explore the places and spaces within and outside their homelands. The earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 2300 BC.
The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography that was more than mere map making or cartography. Greek philosophers and scientist were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human and physical features found on the Earth. One of the first Greek geographers was Herodotus (circa 484 - 425 BC). Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and physical geography of the various regions of the Persian Empire.
The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size, and geometry of the Earth. Aristotle (circa 384 - 322 BC) hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the Earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea came from observations of lunar eclipses. Lunar eclipses occur when the Earth casts its circular shadow on to the moon's surface. The first indivial to accurately calculate the circumference of the Earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (circa 276 - 194 BC). Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial circumference to be 40,233 kilometers using simple geometric relationships. This primitive calculation was unusually accurate. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers.
Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed on to the Romans. Roman military commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their Empire. The Romans also made several important additions to geographical knowledge. Strabo (circa 64 BC - 20 AD) wrote a 17 volume series called "Geographia". Strabo claimed to have traveled widely and recorded what he had seen and experienced from a geographical perspective. In his series of books, Strabo describes the cultural geographies of the various societies of people found from Britain to as far east as India, and south to Ethiopia and as far north as Iceland. Strabo also suggested a definition of geography that is quite complementary to the way many human geographers define their discipline today. This definition suggests that the aim of geography was to "describe the known parts of the inhabited world ... to write the assessment of the countries of the world [and] to treat the differences between countries".
During the second century AD, Ptolemy (circa 100 - 178 AD) made a number of important contributions to geography. Ptolemy's publication Geographike hyphegesis or "Guide to Geography" compiled and summarize much of the Greek and Roman geographic information accumulated at that time. Some of his other important contributions include the creation of three different methods for projecting the Earth's surface on a map, the calculation of coordinate locations for some eight thousand places on the Earth, and development of the concepts of geographical latitude and longitude (Figure 1a-1).
Figure 1a-1: This early map of the world was constructed using map making techniques developed by Ptolemy. Note that the map is organized with crisscrossing lines of latitude and longitude.
Little academic progress in geography occurred after the Roman period. For the most part, the Middle Ages (5th to 13th centuries AD) were a time of intellectual stagnation. In Europe, the Vikings of Scandinavia were the only group of people carrying out active exploration of new lands. In the Middle East, Arab academics began translating the works of Greek and Roman geographers starting in the 8th century and began exploring southwestern Asia and Africa. Some of the important intellectuals in Arab geography were Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaln. Al-Idrisi is best known for his skill at making maps and for his work of descriptive geography Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq or "The Pleasure Excursion of One Who Is Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World". Ibn Battutah and Ibn Khaln are well known for writing about their extensive travels of North Africa and the Middle East.
During the Renaissance (1400 to 1600 AD) numerous journeys of geographical exploration were commissioned by a variety of nation states in Europe. Most of these voyages were financed because of the potential commercial returns from resource exploitation. The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation and discovery. These voyages also added many significant contributions to geographic knowledge (Figure 1a-2). Important explorers of this period include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Jacques Cartier, Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, John and Sebastian Cabot, and John Davis. Also ring the Renaissance, Martin Behaim created a spherical globe depicting the Earth in its true three-dimensional form in 1492. Behaim's invention was a significant advance over two-dimensional maps because it created a more realistic depiction of the Earth's shape and surface configuration.
Figure 1a-2: This map was constructed by Oliva in 1560. It describes the known world at this time and suggests that North America is part of Asia. Further exploration of the world would soon reject this idea.
Spatial Tradition - the investigation of the phenomena of geography from a strictly spatial perspective.
Area Studies Tradition - the geographical study of an area on the Earth at either the local, regional, or global scale.
Human-Land Tradition - the geographical study of human interactions with the environment.
Earth Science Tradition - the study of natural phenomena from a spatial perspective. This tradition is best described as theoretical physical geography.
Today, the academic traditions described by Pattison are still dominant fields of geographical investigation. However, the frequency and magnitude of human mediated environmental problems has been on a steady increase since the publication of this notion. These increases are the result of a growing human population and the consequent increase in the consumption of natural resources. As a result, an increasing number of researchers in geography are studying how humans modify the environment. A significant number of these projects also develop strategies to rece the negative impact of human activities on nature. Some of the dominant themes in these studies include: environmental degradation of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere; resource use issues; natural hazards; environmental impact assessment; and the effect of urbanization and land-use change on natural environments.
Considering all of the statements presented concerning the history and development of geography, we are now ready to formulate a somewhat coherent definition. This definition suggests that geography, in its simplest form, is the field of knowledge that is concerned with how phenomena are spatially organized. Physical geography attempts to determine why natural phenomena have particular spatial patterns and orientation. This online textbook will focus primarily on the Earth Science Tradition. Some of the information that is covered in this textbook also deals with the alterations of the environment because of human interaction. These pieces of information belong in the Human-Land Tradition of geography.
數學：
For more than two thousand years, mathematics has been a part of the human search for understanding. Mathematical discoveries have come both from the attempt to describe the natural world and from the desire to arrive at a form of inescapable truth from careful reasoning. These remain fruitful and important motivations for mathematical thinking, but in the last century mathematics has been successfully applied to many other aspects of the human world: voting trends in politics, the dating of ancient artifacts, the analysis of automobile traffic patterns, and long-term strategies for the sustainable harvest of decious forests, to mention a few. Today, mathematics as a mode of thought and expression is more valuable than ever before. Learning to think in mathematical terms is an essential part of becoming a liberally ecated person.
What is mathematics really like?
Mathematics is not about answers, it's about processes. Let me give a series of parables to try to get to the root of the misconceptions and to try to illuminate what mathematics IS all about. None of these analogies is perfect, but all provide insight.
No subject is more essential nor can contribute more to becoming a liberally ecated person than mathematics. Become a math major and find out!
Computers, mathematics, and the chagrinned diner.
About nineteen years ago when personal computers were becoming more common in small businesses and private homes, I was having lunch with a few people, and it came up that I was a mathematician. One of the other diners got a funny sort of embarrassed look on her face. I steeled myself for that all too common remark, "Oh I was never any good at math." But no, that wasn't it. It turned out that she was thinking that with computers becoming so accurate, fast, and common, there was no longer any need for mathematicians! She was feeling sorry me, as I would soon be unemployed! Apparently she thought that a mathematician's work was to crank out arithmetic computations.
Nothing could be farther from the truth. Thinking that computers will obviate the need for mathematicians is like thinking 80 years ago when cars replaced horse drawn wagons, there would be no more need for careful drivers. On the contrary, powerful engines made careful drivers more important than ever.
Today, powerful computers and good software make it possible to use and concretely implement abstract mathematical ideas that have existed for many years. For example, the RSA cryptosystem is widely used on secure internet web pages to encode sensitive information, like credit card numbers. It is based on ideas in algebraic number theory, and its invulnerability to hackers is the result of very advanced ideas in that field.