英语简史

❶ 英语的发展史

卢恩语(Futhark)→古英语(即盎格鲁-撒克逊语)(Old English、Anglo-Saxon)→英国英语(English)

1.英语的发展要追溯到公元410年，罗马人离开不列颠之后，日耳曼部族包括盎格鲁、萨克逊开始涌入。

2.罗马人走了，没有留下他们使用的拉丁语。反倒是实用的盎格鲁萨克逊语言进入到当地人的语言，带去了新的词汇。

3.公元597年，基督教传入英国。基督教的流行，使当地人更容易接受拉丁文的怪字，如“martyr（烈士）”, “bishop”和 “font”。

4.公元800年，丹麦人入侵英国。维京语言给英语带来了好战意味明显的词汇，英语中共有2000个词汇源于维京人。

5.1066年,征服者威廉入侵不列颠，带来了来自海峡对岸的法语。法语成为了上层阶级与官方事务用语。总的来讲，英文大概从诺曼语中吸收了一万多个单词。

6.1337 年，英法百年战争开始。在这116年的争斗中，英语吸收了法语中的战争词汇，如“armies”, “navies” 及 “soldiers“， 并逐步取代法语，成为当权者的语言。

7.100年之后诞生了莎士比亚。字典告诉我们，莎士比亚大概发明了2000多个新字，包括好用的词汇还有很多当时的流行词汇。

8.1611年出现了詹姆士王版圣经。新圣经使用了所有人都能理解的语言，使得圣经中的教训不再是“王宫粉墙上”的文字，而是手中的小册，并有传教士在每间教堂宣传。

9.17世纪，科学得到了迅速的发展。皇家学院的科学家们一开始用拉丁文沟通，后来发现其实用自己的母语英文会更简洁。新事物的发现产生了许多新的词汇。

10.在日不落帝国迅速扩张时期，英语从殖民地不同的语言中吸收了许多新的词汇与表达。据统计，在1815年到1914年期间，新变种的英文得以在世界各地发展。

11.随着英文向四面八方扩张，词典编纂者也随之出现，这些人想要解决拼字不统一的无政府状态。于是约翰逊博士花了九年编成了一本英文字典，促成了拼写的统一。

12.英语由古代从丹麦等斯堪的纳维亚半岛以及德国、荷兰及周边移民至不列颠群岛的盎格鲁、撒克逊以及朱特部落的白人所说的语言演变而来，并通过英国的殖民活动传播到了世界各地。

13.在19至20世纪，英国以及美国在文化、经济、军事、政治和科学在世界上的领先地位使得英语成为一种国际语言。如今，许多国际场合都使用英语做为沟通媒介。

(1)英语简史扩展阅读

古英语受低地日耳曼语影响很大，比如动词，基本词汇，发音，复合词结构，形态变化很复杂，但是与现代的标准德语还是有很大的区别。

现代英语并非起源或演变自罗曼语族亦或是法语，但是数万现代英语词汇，很大一部分来自法语，约5万英语词汇与法语接近甚至是完全相同，现代英语和多数现代欧洲语言都改用字母拼写。

现代英语所使用的拼写字母，也是完全借用了26个字母。所谓“英语字母”，就是古罗马人在书写时所使用的拼写字母。

英语开始以拉丁字母作为拼写系统大约是在公元六世纪盎格鲁撒克逊时代。

参考资料

英语-网络

❷ 英语的英语简史

卢恩语(Futhark)→古英语(即盎格鲁-撒克逊语)(Old English、Anglo-Saxon)→英国英语(English)
即恩→盎→英的三个相似的有规律的音节的之间的相互变化。
古英语受低地德语影响很大，比如动词，基本词汇，发音，复合词结构，形态变化很复杂，但是与现代的标准德语还是有很大的区别。现代英语并非起源或演变自罗曼语族下的古典拉丁语和通俗拉丁语亦或是法语，但是数万现代英语词汇，很大一部分来自法语或者拉丁语，约5万英语词汇与法语接近甚至是完全相同，现代英语和多数现代欧洲语言都改用拉丁字母拼写。
公元1066年，割据法兰西王国西北部的诺曼底公爵（丹麦人后裔）威廉一世，征服英格兰王国，成为英格兰国王，所有的英国贵族也都换成法国人，并且和法国本土的贵族通婚。诺曼征服的三百余年间，英格兰王国的君主与贵族都讲法语，教士们则习用拉丁语，中古英语。1500年左右，中古英语演变成为近代英语。
现代英语所使用的拼写字母，也是完全借用了26个拉丁字母。所谓“拉丁字母”，就是古罗马人在书写时所使用的拼写字母。英语开始以拉丁字母作为拼写系统大约是在公元六世纪盎格鲁撒克逊时代。当时的传教士们为了把当地语言记录成文字而引进拉丁字母，他们所面临的问题是当时的英语共有超过40种不同的音，而拉丁字母无法一一对应，于是他们用增加字母、在字母上加变音符号、两个字母连写等方法来对应不同的发音，之后慢慢形成了古英语用26个拉丁字母+&来拼写并伴有一些拼写规则的文字系统。
古英语： Hwæt! WēGār-Denaingeārdagum,þēodcyningaþrymgefrūnon,hūðā æþelingasellenfremedon.OftScyld Scēfingsceaþenaþrēatum,monegummǣgþum,meodosetlaoftēah,egsodeeorlas.Syððanǣrestwearðfēasceaftfunden,hēþæs frōfregebād,wēoxunderwolcnum,weorðmynmþāh,oðþæthimǣghwylcþāra ymbsittendraofer hronrādehȳran scolde,gombangyldan.Þæt wæsgōdcyning!以下是对上文的翻译，现代英语：
Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kingsof spear-armed Danes, in days long sped,we have heard, and what honor the athelings won!Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes,from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore,awing the earls. Since erst he layfriendless, a foundling, fate repaid him:for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve,till before him the folk, both far and near,who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate,gave him gifts: a good king he! 日耳曼人其中一支的早期部落移民
早期时候日耳曼人四支部落（盎格鲁族、撒克逊族、朱特族和弗里西族）移民到英格兰，英语就是从他们的语言中变化继承下来。据《盎格鲁撒克逊编年史》记载，公元449年左右，大不列颠群岛国王伏提庚（Vortigern）邀请“盎格鲁亲戚们”来帮助他对抗皮克特人，于是他赐予盎格鲁族东南部的领土作为回报。后来，他又进一步寻求支援，撒克逊族、盎格鲁族与朱特族人便纷纷前来。《编年史》记载，最终这些“移民”建立了七个王国：诺森布里亚、麦西亚、东盎格利亚、肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯。（简称：“七国时代”）
日耳曼人入侵后，统治了当地的凯尔特语民族。本地语言主要于苏格兰、威尔士、康瓦耳与爱尔兰存活了下来。这些入侵者的语言逐渐形成了“古英语”(盎格鲁撒克逊语)，与古弗里西语极为相像。English（英格兰人、英语）、England（英格兰）和East Anglia（东盎格利亚）这三个词是分别从描绘盎格鲁族的词汇发展而来：Englisc、 Angelcynn、Englaland。
凯尔特人居住在被他们的祖先称为“不列颠尼亚”的群岛上，在日耳曼人入侵后，日耳曼人占据并统治了位于不列颠群岛的东南部分的英格兰王国，部分凯尔特人被消灭，同化，另一部分凯尔特人被迫西迁，从而形成了不列颠历史上著名的凯尔特诸王国时期，带领凯尔特人民英勇抵御撒克逊人进攻的亚瑟王便是他们其中的代表，也因此凯尔特语族的语言也主要于爱尔兰、威尔士、康沃尔、苏格兰，以及法国的布列塔尼存活了下来，一直到了13世纪之后，英格兰王国终于正式与其他的讲凯尔特语族的王国结成了联合王国式的联盟关系，而这些凯尔特人与日耳曼人所结成的联合王国式的联盟关系也就是现今大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国的雏形了。 公元1-5世纪大不列颠岛东南部为罗马帝国所统治。罗马人撤走之后，欧洲北部斯堪的纳维亚半岛的盎格鲁人、萨克逊人、朱特人相继入侵并定居，7世纪开始形成封建制度，九世纪末，入侵者几乎占领了整个英国的东南部。
公元八世纪时，诺曼人移民西法兰克王国（法兰西）。911年，法兰西王国的昏庸者查理与诺曼人首领罗伦签订了圣-克莱尔-埃普特条约，将法兰西王国北部的沿海地区布列塔尼封予了罗伦，他们在此与法国居民通婚形成了盎格鲁-诺曼人，并建立了诺曼底公国，自此诺曼底公国成为法兰西王国的附属，为法王效忠，并改用法语作为母语。
1066年，法国诺曼底公爵威廉一世征服英格兰王国，在威斯敏斯特修道院登基加冕，史称征服者威廉，所有的英国贵族也都换成法国人。诺曼征服后三百年内，英格兰王国的君主与贵族使用法语，教士们则习用古拉丁语，古英语沦落为平民以及农奴的语言。因重要场合及贵族的使用，法语强烈影响古英语，古英语也因当时地位相对下贱，缺乏对文法规范的重视和约束，迅速大量丢失早期复杂的曲折变化，进而发展形成中古英语。1500年左右的元音大推移将中古英语变形为近代英语。古英语最著名的文学作品是《贝奥武夫》，中古英语则是《坎特伯里故事集》。
近代英语在莎士比亚所处的时期开始繁荣。随着不列颠对全世界大部分地区的占领和殖民，当地语言也很大程度上影响了英语的发展。 近代英语在威廉·莎士比亚所处的时期开始繁荣，一些学者将之分为早期近代英语与后期近代英语，分界线为1800年左右。随着大英帝国对全世界大部分地区地占领和殖民，当地语言也很大程度上影响了英语的发展。包括威克里夫（John Wycliffe）（英文版犹太圣经的编译者之一）、塞缪尔·约翰逊（Samuel Johnson）（第一部大英字典的编著者之一）和威廉·莎士比亚（Willian Shakespeare）（著名的剧作家、诗人）等等都是英语普及的重要人物。
历史时期：
一、古英语时期——公元449年至1100年
古英语时期共有四种主要方言：
（1）诺森伯里亚方言--洪伯河（the Humber）以北的方言。
（2）梅尔西亚方言--界乎洪伯河与泰晤士河之间的英国中部地区的方言。
（3）肯特（Kentish）方言--居住在英国东南部地区的朱特人的方言。
（4）西撤克逊方言--泰晤士河以南的方言。诺森伯里亚和梅尔西亚这两种方言又合称盎格里亚方言，即盎格鲁人居住地区的方言。
二、中古英语时期——公元1100年至1500年
三、现代英语时期——公元1500年至今
现代英语时期又细分为：
（1）早期现代英语时期——公元1500年至1700年；
（2）后期现代英语时期——公元1700年至当前。

❸ 英文简史40-50字

自己总结挑选一下
英伦三岛的第一批印欧居民是塞尔特人。原先岛上可能还有更早的居民，但是人烟稀少，所以没有留下多少遗迹。前文提到，塞尔特人是古印欧人的一支，大约在四千五百年前离开他们在东欧的故乡向西迁移，在公元前一千年时（相当于我国商朝末年、西周初年），他们成了德国南部、阿尔卑斯山北麓的一个强大民族。在公元前五百年左右（相当于我国春秋时期），他们开始向西迁移，后来到了英伦诸岛。这就是印欧人的第一次“入侵”。
印欧人的第二次入侵是在公元五世纪中叶，当时生活在现在的德国和丹麦交界处有两个部落，一个是石勒苏益格（Schleswig）的盎格鲁（Angles），另一个是霍尔施坦因（Holstein）的萨克森（Saxon）。石勒苏益格／霍尔施坦因现在是德国最北面的两个州，是第一次世界大战时德国从丹麦那里“取得”的。这两个部落从那里跨过北海，占据了英格兰，原来的塞尔特人很快地后退到威尔士、爱尔兰和苏格兰高地。English一词就出自Angles，原意为“角落”，意即他们来自欧洲大陆的一角。在古英语中Angle写作Engle，他们的语言叫做Englisc（在古英语中“sc”读如“sh”，如“sceap”——“sheep”）。顺便说一句，“塞尔特”（Celt）中的c可以读如s或k，所以也叫“凯尔特”，美国人中有许多来自苏格兰和爱尔兰，所谓的“美国腔”可能是凯尔特口音。波士顿不是有个著名的球队叫“凯尔特人队”嘛。
古英语一直发展到公元1066年法国的诺曼人入侵。在此以前，由于受北欧人和罗马人的影响，许多斯堪地那维亚词汇和拉丁词汇溶了进来。前者如egg，cake，skin，leg，window，husband，sky，fellow，skill，anger，flat，ugly，odd，get，give，take，raise，call，die，they，their，them；后者如street，kitchen，kettle，cup，cheese，wine。塞尔特语的遗迹大多留在地名中，如Thames，Kent，Dover。
诺曼人的入侵为英语带来了大量的法语词汇，这使得现代英语中存现大量的同义／近义词：shut／close，answer／reply，smell／odor，yearly／annual，ask／demand，room／chamber，wish／desire，might／power（英语词／法语词）。有一个有趣的现象是产肉的动物多是英语词，如ox，cow，calf，sheep，swine，deer，而它们的肉则是法语词，如beef，veal，mutton，pork，bacon，venison。大概持法语的多为贵族统治者，只注意他们餐桌上的肉，并不在意牲畜们叫什么。
另外在已有的英语／斯堪地那维亚语同义词基础上，如英语的wrath和斯堪地那维亚语的anger之外，法语又加了个ire。连我们汉语也贡献了几个词：kowtow（叩头），typhoon（台风），sampan（舢板），kaolin（高岭土），tea（闽方言），shanghai（不是地名：－））。
这些外来语使英语成为一个表达力丰富的语言。尽管溶入了如此众多的“外来语”，古英语仍然构成了它的核心——不到五千的古英语单词一直保持到了今天。在此期间英语逐渐向高层发展，1399年继承王位的亨利四世是第一个以英语为母语的英国国王。在十四世纪快要结束的时候，乔叟（Chaucer）完成了『坎特伯雷的传说』（Canterbury Tales），以伦敦方言为代表的现代英语终于开始出现：一个来自当年“角落”的语言。早期日耳曼人西支部落（盎格鲁族、撒克逊族、朱特族和弗里西族）移民到英格兰，英语就是从他们的语言中变化继承下来。据《盎格鲁撒克逊编年史》记载，公元449年左右，不列颠群岛国王伏提庚（Vortigern）邀请“盎格鲁亲戚们”来帮助他对抗皮克特人，于是他赐予盎格鲁族东南部的领土作为回报。随后他又进一步寻求支援，撒克逊族、盎格鲁族与朱特族人便纷纷前来。《编年史》记载，最终这些“移民”建立了七个王国：诺森伯利亚、麦西亚、东盎格利亚、肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯。
日尔曼人入侵后，统治了当地的凯尔特语民族，本地语言主要于苏格兰、威尔士、康瓦耳与爱尔兰岛存活了下来。这些入侵者的语言逐渐形成了“古英语”，与近代弗里西语极为相像。English（英格兰人、英语）、England（英格兰）和East Anglia（东盎格利亚）这三个词是分别从描绘盎格鲁族的词汇发展而来：Englisc、 Angelcynn、Englaland。
公元九世纪，斯堪的纳维亚人大规模侵入英国北部。九世纪末，入侵者几乎占领了整个英国的东半部。斯堪的纳维亚人说的是北日尔曼语。北日尔曼语和西日尔曼语的差别不是很悬殊。斯堪的纳维亚人入侵的结果使大量斯堪的纳维亚语（以古诺斯语 Old Norse 为代表）的词汇进入了古英语的词汇。古诺斯语和古英语有很多同义词汇，结果古诺斯语词在英语词汇里往往取古英语词而代之。
1066年诺曼征服后三百年内，英格兰的国王只讲法语。因此一大批法语词汇进入了古英语，古英语本身也失去了大部分曲折变化，形成中古英语。1500年左右的元音大推移将中古英语变形为近代英语。古英语最著名的文学作品是《贝奥武夫》，中古英语则是《坎特伯里故事集》。
近代英语在莎士比亚所处的时期开始繁荣，一些学者将之分为早期近代英语与后期近代英语，分界线为1800年左右。随着不列颠对全世界大部分地区的占领和殖民，当地语言也很大程度上影响了英语的发展。

❹ 英语的起源与发展

早期时候日耳曼人四支部落（盎格鲁族、撒克逊族、朱特族和弗里西族）移民到英格兰，英语就是从他们的语言中变化继承下来。据《盎格鲁撒克逊编年史》记载，公元449年左右，大不列颠群岛国王伏提庚（Vortigern）邀请“盎格鲁亲戚们”来帮助他对抗皮克特人，于是他赐予盎格鲁族东南部的领土作为回报。

后来，他又进一步寻求支援，撒克逊族、盎格鲁族与朱特族人便纷纷前来。《编年史》记载，最终这些“移民”建立了七个王国：诺森布里亚、麦西亚、东盎格利亚、肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯。（简称：“七国时代”）

日耳曼人入侵后，统治了当地的凯尔特语民族。本地语言主要于苏格兰、威尔士、康瓦耳与爱尔兰存活了下来。这些入侵者的语言逐渐形成了“古英语”(盎格鲁撒克逊语)，与古弗里西语极为相像。English（英格兰人、英语）、England（英格兰）和East Anglia（东盎格利亚）这三个词是分别从描绘盎格鲁族的词汇发展而来：Englisc、 Angelcynn、Englaland。

凯尔特人居住在被他们的祖先称为“不列颠尼亚”的群岛上，在日耳曼人入侵后，日耳曼人占据并统治了位于不列颠群岛的东南部分的英格兰王国，部分凯尔特人被消灭，同化，另一部分凯尔特人被迫西迁，从而形成了不列颠历史上著名的凯尔特诸王国时期。

带领凯尔特人民英勇抵御撒克逊人进攻的亚瑟王便是他们其中的代表，也因此凯尔特语族的语言也主要于爱尔兰、威尔士、康沃尔、苏格兰，以及法国的布列塔尼存活了下来。

一直到了13世纪之后，英格兰王国终于正式与其他的讲凯尔特语族的王国结成了联合王国式的联盟关系，而这些凯尔特人与日耳曼人所结成的联合王国式的联盟关系也就是现今大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国的雏形了。

公元1-5世纪大不列颠岛东南部为罗马帝国所统治。罗马人撤走之后，欧洲北部斯堪的纳维亚半岛的盎格鲁人、萨克逊人、朱特人相继入侵并定居，7世纪开始形成封建制度，九世纪末，入侵者几乎占领了整个英国的东南部。

公元八世纪时，诺曼人移民西法兰克王国（法兰西）。911年，法兰西王国的昏庸者查理与诺曼人首领罗伦签订了圣-克莱尔-埃普特条约，将法兰西王国北部的沿海地区布列塔尼封予了罗伦，他们在此与法国居民通婚形成了盎格鲁-诺曼人，并建立了诺曼底公国，自此诺曼底公国成为法兰西王国的附属，为法王效忠，并改用法语作为母语。

1066年，法国诺曼底公爵威廉一世征服英格兰王国，在威斯敏斯特修道院登基加冕，史称征服者威廉，所有的英国贵族也都换成法国人。诺曼征服后三百年内，英格兰王国的君主与贵族使用法语，教士们则习用古拉丁语，古英语沦落为平民以及农奴的语言。

因重要场合及贵族的使用，法语强烈影响古英语，古英语也因当时地位相对下贱，缺乏对文法规范的重视和约束，迅速大量丢失早期复杂的曲折变化，进而发展形成中古英语。1500年左右的元音大推移将中古英语变形为近代英语。古英语最著名的文学作品是《贝奥武夫》，中古英语则是《坎特伯里故事集》。

近代英语在莎士比亚所处的时期开始繁荣。随着不列颠对全世界大部分地区的占领和殖民，当地语言也很大程度上影响了英语的发展。

近代英语在威廉·莎士比亚所处的时期开始繁荣，一些学者将之分为早期近代英语与后期近代英语，分界线为1800年左右。随着大英帝国对全世界大部分地区地占领和殖民，当地语言也很大程度上影响了英语的发展。

包括威克里夫（John Wycliffe）（英文版犹太圣经的编译者之一）、塞缪尔·约翰逊（Samuel Johnson）（第一部大英字典的编著者之一）和威廉·莎士比亚（Willian Shakespeare）（著名的剧作家、诗人）等等都是英语普及的重要人物。

(4)英语简史扩展阅读：

通过大英帝国对全球的影响，现代英语在17世纪至20世纪中叶传播到了世界各地。通过各种印刷和电子媒体，随着美国取得全球超级大国地位，英语已经成为了国际对话中居领导地位的世界语言。它还是许多地区和行业（如科学、导航、法律等）的通用语。

现代英语和很多其他语言相比屈折变化较少，更多地依靠助动词和语序来表达复杂的时态、体和语气，以及被动语态、疑问和一些否定。英语的各种口音和方言在发音和音位方面有显著差异，有时它们的词汇、语法和拼法也有所不同，但世界各地说英语的人能基本无碍地沟通交流。

❺ 能否介绍一下英语简史

A Brief Look at the History of English

The history of English is conventionally, if perhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfric's "Homily on St. Gregory the Great" and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as slaves in Rome:

Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, "Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon."

A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spelling with their modern equivalents -- he, of, him, for, and, on -- and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed -- nama to name, comon to come, wære to were, wæs to was -- but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding. The sense of it is as follows: "Again he [St. Gregory] asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, 'Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should be angels' companions in heaven.' " Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habbað (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a trace, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft "again," ðeode "people, nation," cwæð "said, spoke," gehatene "called, named," wlite "appearance, beauty," and geferan "companions." Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, þ, called "thorn," and ð, called "edh," which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th.

Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspects of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb -- þa cwæð he "Then said he" -- a phenomenon not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: þe hi of comon "which they from came," for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað "because they angels' beauty have."

Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English reflected in Aelfric's sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: ðære ðeode "(of) the people" is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle "Angles" is masculine, accusative, and plural, and swilcum "such" is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habbað "have" ends with the -að suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (two for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a prefix ge- (as geandwyrd "answered" above).

The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the rection of others (often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfric's prose has; but it will not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandeville's Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written in French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by "full yuele [evil] folk and full cruell."

In þat lond ben trees þat beren wolle, as þogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken clothes, and all þing þat may ben made of wolle. In þat contree ben many ipotaynes, þat dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and þei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and þei eten men, whan þei may take hem. And þere ben ryueres and watres þat ben fulle byttere, þree sithes more þan is the water of the see. In þat contré ben many griffounes, more plentee þan in ony other contree. Sum men seyn þat þei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly þei seyn soth þat þei ben of þat schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, þanne eight lyouns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere þan an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun þere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as þei gon at the plowgh.

The spelling is often peculiar by modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contré and contree, o [griffoun] and a [gret hors], þanne and þan, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called "yogh," to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but here may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes "hippopotamuses" and sithes "times" that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words and phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere "salty," o this half "on this side of the world," and at the poynt "to hand," and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfric's writing even if his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun.

In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more þan is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs still receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative þei has replaced Aelfric's hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reced, and in most respects Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English.

The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistributed the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandeville's English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direct influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions to our word-stock.

The historical aspect of English really encompasses more than the three stages of development just under consideration. English has what might be called a prehistory as well. As we have seen, our language did not simply spring into existence; it was brought from the Continent by Germanic tribes who had no form of writing and hence left no records. Philologists know that they must have spoken a dialect of a language that can be called West Germanic and that other dialects of this unknown language must have included the ancestors of such languages as German, Dutch, Low German, and Frisian. They know this because of certain systematic similarities which these languages share with each other but do not share with, say, Danish. However, they have had somehow to reconstruct what that language was like in its lexicon, phonology, grammar, and semantics as best they can through sophisticated techniques of comparison developed chiefly ring the last century. Similarly, because ancient and modern languages like Old Norse and Gothic or Icelandic and Norwegian have points in common with Old English and Old High German or Dutch and English that they do not share with French or Russian, it is clear that there was an earlier unrecorded language that can be called simply Germanic and that must be reconstructed in the same way. Still earlier, Germanic was just a dialect (the ancestors of Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were three other such dialects) of a language conventionally designated Indo-European, and thus English is just one relatively young member of an ancient family of languages whose descendants cover a fair portion of the globe.

❻ 英语历史

以下是於九世纪下半(约当中土晚唐时期)开始写的《盎格鲁萨克逊编年史》
(Anglo-saxon Chronicle) 其中较早期两段的转写摘录。该份已多以现代字母形转写的原文当中,
如阿拉伯数字"7"形状的符号, 是 and (&), 不是数字。

这里可见到以古英文所写的盎格鲁萨克逊编年史 手稿书写形式样本。
(当时也只有手抄本, 活版印刷是十五世纪的事了)
→ anglo-saxon chronicl

是「古英语」时期的英语写就的英文。
原文其下紧接著以"---"号隔开的, 是现代英语文转译。

「古英语」, "Old English", 或称盎格鲁萨克逊语, 这个名称, 是概括西元约十二世纪(中土北宋时期)
往前推到西元五世纪盎格鲁/萨克逊/朱特人开始侵入不列颠岛, 那段约五六百年期间的英语。
以下则为 莎士比亚(AD 1564-1616, 约明万历年间), 其《哈姆雷特》(Hamlet)剧本当中有名的
一段独白。 是「早期现代英语」时期的英文, 但下文已多以现代英文拼字法转拼写。

这里有莎士比亚的墓志铭的相片/图片, 以当时英文书写形式所铭刻的墓志铭,
以及大约同时期的一些文本: → epitaph of shakespeare

「早期现代英语」, "Early Modern English", 这时期是从约十六世纪起算, 有学者往後断代至
十七世纪中叶, 亦有甚或断至十八世纪末者。是 中古英语 跟 现代英语 的承上启下时期。
以下文本的拼字跟标点, 多已循现代英文惯例, 就不附现代英语译文了。
********************************************************************
To be, or not to be: that is the question:
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep;
No more; and by a sleep to say we end
The heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to, 'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wish'd. To die, to sleep;
To sleep: perchance to dream: ay, there's the rub;
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause: there's the respect
That makes calamity of so long life;
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,
The oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely,
The pangs of despised love, the law's delay,
The insolence of office and the spurns
That patient merit of the unworthy takes,
When he himself might his quietus make
With a bare bodkin? who would fardels bear,
To grunt and sweat under a weary life,
But that the dread of something after death,
The undiscover'd country from whose bourn
No traveller returns, puzzles the will
And makes us rather bear those ills we have
Than fly to others that we know not of?
Thus conscience does make cowards of us all;
And thus the native hue of resolution
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought,
And enterprises of great pith and moment
With this regard their currents turn awry,
And lose the name of action.
********************************************************************

四、过来就是现代英语, 文本垂手可得, 就不另列。

跟过去三四千年来, 直到约一百年前的廿世纪初年, 一直以和口语白话不是扣得很紧的文言文体,
且以跟语音不是紧密连结同时有表意作用的汉字, 所书写的汉字古文献来相较,
英文在仅约一千年多一点的时间当中的推移变化至今,
其不同期间的互为差别, 是大多了。

❼ 英语的历史

The history of English language

The history of the English language began over 1500 years ago in the north of Europe. Around the fifth century A.D., tribes of people known as the Angels, Saxons, and Jutes traveled west from Germany and Denmark across the North Sea. They settled in Britain, and by the late seventh century, they were speaking an early form the English.
In the late eighth century, the Vikings attacked England. Fighting continued for almost two hundred years. During this time, many Latin, Danish, and Norse words entered the English language. Latin gave English words like kitchen and cup. From Danish and Norse, English borrowed skin, leg, and the pronouns them, their, and they. many synonyms from the Norse language became integrated into English, for example, wrath(English),anger(Norse);sick(English),ill(Norse).
In 1066, the Normans conquered England. French became the language of the wealthy and powerful, and English was spoken mostly by poorer people. In the late fourteenth century, English became the first language again. By this time, many words used in English came from French or Latin, and a lot of the early words no longer existed.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, people became interested in the classics. At this time, words from Latin and Greek were included in the English language. a lot of words, or parts of words, from those languages are used in modern English.
Today, English has loan words from many of the world’s languages. You can probably find a word used in English that first came from your native language.

英语的历史

英语的历史从1500多年前的北欧开始。 在公元5世纪左右，称为天使、撒克逊和黄麻的人们的部落从德国和丹麦旅行向西过北海。 他们迁入英国，并且在7世纪末以前，他们讲早期的形式英语。

在8世纪末，斯堪的那维亚人攻占英国。 战争持续了将近200年。 在这个时期，很多拉丁语、丹麦和古斯堪的那维亚的单词融入英语。 象炊具和杯子与生活息息相关一样，拉丁语给了英语很多单词。 从丹麦语和古斯堪的那维亚语中，英国人借鉴过来了皮肤、腿、以及各种词格的代词“他们”、“他们的”。 来自古斯堪的那维亚语的很多同义词统一到英语中，例如，愤怒(英语的wrath和古斯堪的那维亚语的anger)；生病(英语的sick和古斯堪的那维亚语的ill)，都在英语中进行了统一。

1066年，诺曼人征服英国。 法语成为富人的语言和强有力的象征，但穷人主要讲英语。 在14世纪末，英语再次成为第一语言。 到这时，英国人使用的很多词汇来自法语或者拉丁语，并且许多早期的词汇已经不复存在。

到了第16和17世纪，人们对古典作品感兴趣。 在这个时期，来自拉丁语和希腊语的词汇被归入英语。 许多词汇或者单词的组成部分，从那些语言被用现代英语引进使用。 今天，英语有来自大多数世界性语言的泊来单词。 你或许能找到英语使用的某个词汇是最先来自你的母语。

❽ 英语发展简史

英语最初是由印欧语系中日耳曼语族下的西日耳曼语支开展而来的。
随着英国工业革命，各个殖民地的建立。英语随着暴力与入侵在全球范围内扩散开来。经过几百年的演变，它以不可挽回的融入了各个民族的语言当中。成为了真正有全球影响力的语言。拿汉语来说，幽默。咖啡。这些潜移默化的词汇都来自英语，日语中此类词更多。
当然 英国衰落后，美国的强大也延续了英语的生命。科技进步，全球通信的发达更加让其他名族的语言对英语产生了让步。这一现象，是时代的选择。

❾ 如何复习英语简史 71

英语嘛，必较简单，因为其实主要看自己基础，只要考前背熟些单词，看熟课本里面的语法，再听听多做些听力练习就行了。 历史请看下面，其实主要作平时学习用。 首先当然是要把课本的内容看透，背熟